http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningzone/clips/secondary/religious%20education
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/galleries/christmas/
Tuesday, January 31, 2012
Ethics and morality
Discover your personal dimensions of morality.
https://www.bbc.co.uk/labuk/experiments/morality/
https://www.bbc.co.uk/labuk/articles/morality/
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/guide/
Ethics is concerned with what is good for individuals and society and is also described as moral philosophy.
The term is derived from the Greek word ethos which can mean custom, habit, character or disposition.
Ethics covers the following dilemmas:
But there's another way of tackling these issues, and that's where philosophers can come in - they offer us ethical rules and principles that enable us to take a cooler view of moral problems.
So ethics provides us with a moral map, a framework that we can use to find our way through difficult issues.
That can take a lot of heat out of the argument, and sometimes even hint at a way for them to resolve their problem.
But sometimes ethics doesn't provide people with the sort of help that they really want.
Indeed more and more people think that for many ethical issues there isn't a single right answer - just a set of principles that can be applied to particular cases to give those involved some clear choices.
Some philosophers go further and say that all ethics can do is eliminate confusion and clarify the issues. After that it's up to each individual to come to their own conclusions.
But often there isn't one right answer - there may be several right answers, or just some least worst answers - and the individual must choose between them.
For others moral ambiguity is difficult because it forces them to take responsibility for their own choices and actions, rather than falling back on convenient rules and customs.
If a group believes that a particular activity is "wrong" it can then use morality as the justification for attacking those who practice that activity.
When people do this, they often see those who they regard as immoral as in some way less human or deserving of respect than themselves; sometimes with tragic consequences.
Virtue Ethics is particularly concerned with the moral character of human beings.
But now even philosophers are less sure that it's possible to devise a satisfactory and complete theory of ethics - at least not one that leads to conclusions.
Modern thinkers often teach that ethics leads people not to conclusions but to 'decisions'.
In this view, the role of ethics is limited to clarifying 'what's at stake' in particular ethical problems.
Philosophy can help identify the range of ethical methods, conversations and value systems that can be applied to a particular problem. But after these things have been made clear, each person must make their own individual decision as to what to do, and then react appropriately to the consequences.
That's the sort of question that only a philosopher would ask, but it's actually a very useful way of getting a clear idea of what's going on when people talk about moral issues.
The different 'isms' regard the person uttering the statement as doing different things.
We can show some of the different things I might be doing when I say 'murder is bad' by rewriting that statement to show what I really mean:
So, something is good because God says it is, and the way to lead a good life is to do what God wants.
Intuitionists think that goodness or badness can be detected by adults - they say that human beings have an intuitive moral sense that enables them to detect real moral truths.
They think that basic moral truths of what is good and bad are self-evident to a person who directs their mind towards moral issues.
So good things are the things that a sensible person realises are good if they spend some time pondering the subject.
Don't get confused. For the intuitionist:
Consequentialism teaches that people should do whatever produces the greatest amount of good consequences.
One famous way of putting this is 'the greatest good for the greatest number of people'.
The most common forms of consequentialism are the various versions of utilitarianism, which favour actions that produce the greatest amount of happiness.
Despite its obvious common-sense appeal, consequentialism turns out to be a complicated theory, and doesn't provide a complete solution to all ethical problems.
Two problems with consequentialism are:
It teaches that some acts are right or wrong in themselves, whatever the consequences, and people should act accordingly.
Virtue ethics is particularly concerned with the way individuals live their lives, and less concerned in assessing particular actions.
It develops the idea of good actions by looking at the way virtuous people express their inner goodness in the things that they do.
To put it very simply, virtue ethics teaches that an action is right if and only if it is an action that a virtuous person would do in the same circumstances, and that a virtuous person is someone who has a particularly good character.
Rather than following rules the decision maker should follow a desire to seek the best for the people involved. There are no moral rules or rights - each case is unique and deserves a unique solution.
They usually go on to say that ethics is used by the dominant political elite as a tool to control everyone else.
More cynical writers suggest that power elites enforce an ethical code on other people that helps them control those people, but do not apply this code to their own behaviour.
Moral absolutism argues that there are some moral rules that are always true, that these rules can be discovered and that these rules apply to everyone.
Immoral acts - acts that break these moral rules - are wrong in themselves, regardless of the circumstances or the consequences of those acts.
Absolutism takes a universal view of humanity - there is one set of rules for everyone - which enables the drafting of universal rules - such as the Declaration of Human Rights.
Religious views of ethics tend to be absolutist.
Why people disagree with moral absolutism:
Therefore it makes sense to say that "good" refers to the things that a particular group of people approve of.
Moral relativists think that that's just fine, and dispute the idea that there are some objective and discoverable 'super-rules' that all cultures ought to obey. They believe that relativism respects the diversity of human societies and responds to the different circumstances surrounding human acts.
Why people disagree with moral relativism:
https://www.bbc.co.uk/labuk/experiments/morality/
https://www.bbc.co.uk/labuk/articles/morality/
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/guide/
What is ethics?
At its simplest, ethics is a system of moral principles. They affect how people make decisions and lead their lives.Ethics is concerned with what is good for individuals and society and is also described as moral philosophy.
The term is derived from the Greek word ethos which can mean custom, habit, character or disposition.
Ethics covers the following dilemmas:
- how to live a good life
- our rights and responsibilities
- the language of right and wrong
- moral decisions - what is good and bad?
Approaches to ethics
Philosophers nowadays tend to divide ethical theories into three areas: metaethics, normative ethics and applied ethics.- Meta-ethics deals with the nature of moral judgement. It looks at the origins and meaning of ethical principles.
- Normative ethics is concerned with the content of moral judgements and the criteria for what is right or wrong.
- Applied ethics looks at controversial topics like war, animal rights and capital punishment
Ethics can provide a moral map
Most moral issues get us pretty worked up - think of abortion and euthanasia for starters. Because these are such emotional issues we often let our hearts do the arguing while our brains just go with the flow.But there's another way of tackling these issues, and that's where philosophers can come in - they offer us ethical rules and principles that enable us to take a cooler view of moral problems.
So ethics provides us with a moral map, a framework that we can use to find our way through difficult issues.
Ethics can pinpoint a disagreement
Using the framework of ethics, two people who are arguing a moral issue can often find that what they disagree about is just one particular part of the issue, and that they broadly agree on everything else.That can take a lot of heat out of the argument, and sometimes even hint at a way for them to resolve their problem.
But sometimes ethics doesn't provide people with the sort of help that they really want.
Ethics doesn't give right answers
Ethics doesn't always show the right answer to moral problems.Indeed more and more people think that for many ethical issues there isn't a single right answer - just a set of principles that can be applied to particular cases to give those involved some clear choices.
Some philosophers go further and say that all ethics can do is eliminate confusion and clarify the issues. After that it's up to each individual to come to their own conclusions.
Ethics can give several answers
Many people want there to be a single right answer to ethical questions. They find moral ambiguity hard to live with because they genuinely want to do the 'right' thing, and even if they can't work out what that right thing is, they like the idea that 'somewhere' there is one right answer.But often there isn't one right answer - there may be several right answers, or just some least worst answers - and the individual must choose between them.
For others moral ambiguity is difficult because it forces them to take responsibility for their own choices and actions, rather than falling back on convenient rules and customs.
Ethics as source of group strength
One problem with ethics is the way it's often used as a weapon.If a group believes that a particular activity is "wrong" it can then use morality as the justification for attacking those who practice that activity.
When people do this, they often see those who they regard as immoral as in some way less human or deserving of respect than themselves; sometimes with tragic consequences.
Good people as well as good actions
Ethics is not only about the morality of particular courses of action, but it's also about the goodness of individuals and what it means to live a good life.Virtue Ethics is particularly concerned with the moral character of human beings.
Searching for the source of right and wrong
At times in the past some people thought that ethical problems could be solved in one of two ways:- by discovering what God wanted people to do
- by thinking rigorously about moral principles and problems
But now even philosophers are less sure that it's possible to devise a satisfactory and complete theory of ethics - at least not one that leads to conclusions.
Modern thinkers often teach that ethics leads people not to conclusions but to 'decisions'.
In this view, the role of ethics is limited to clarifying 'what's at stake' in particular ethical problems.
Philosophy can help identify the range of ethical methods, conversations and value systems that can be applied to a particular problem. But after these things have been made clear, each person must make their own individual decision as to what to do, and then react appropriately to the consequences.
Four ethical 'isms'
When a person says "murder is bad" what are they doing?That's the sort of question that only a philosopher would ask, but it's actually a very useful way of getting a clear idea of what's going on when people talk about moral issues.
The different 'isms' regard the person uttering the statement as doing different things.
We can show some of the different things I might be doing when I say 'murder is bad' by rewriting that statement to show what I really mean:
- I might be making a statement about an ethical fact
- "It is wrong to murder"
- This is moral realism
- I might be making a statement about my own feelings
- "I disapprove of murder"
- This is subjectivism
- I might be expressing my feelings
- "Down with murder"
- This is emotivism
- I might be giving an instruction or a prohibition
- "Don't murder people"
- This is prescriptivism
Where does ethics come from?
Philosophers have several answers to this question:
- God and religion
- Human conscience and intuition
- a rational moral cost-benefit analysis of actions and their effects
- the example of good human beings
- a desire for the best for people in each unique situation
- political power
God-based ethics - supernaturalism
Supernaturalism makes ethics inseparable from religion. It teaches that the only source of moral rules is God.So, something is good because God says it is, and the way to lead a good life is to do what God wants.
Intuitionism
Intuitionists think that good and bad are real objective properties that can't be broken down into component parts. Something is good because it's good; its goodness doesn't need justifying or proving.Intuitionists think that goodness or badness can be detected by adults - they say that human beings have an intuitive moral sense that enables them to detect real moral truths.
They think that basic moral truths of what is good and bad are self-evident to a person who directs their mind towards moral issues.
So good things are the things that a sensible person realises are good if they spend some time pondering the subject.
Don't get confused. For the intuitionist:
- moral truths are not discovered by rational argument
- moral truths are not discovered by having a hunch
- moral truths are not discovered by having a feeling
Consequentialism
This is the ethical theory that most non-religious people think they use every day. It bases morality on the consequences of human actions and not on the actions themselves.Consequentialism teaches that people should do whatever produces the greatest amount of good consequences.
One famous way of putting this is 'the greatest good for the greatest number of people'.
The most common forms of consequentialism are the various versions of utilitarianism, which favour actions that produce the greatest amount of happiness.
Despite its obvious common-sense appeal, consequentialism turns out to be a complicated theory, and doesn't provide a complete solution to all ethical problems.
Two problems with consequentialism are:
- it can lead to the conclusion that some quite dreadful acts are good
- predicting and evaluating the consequences of actions is often very difficult
Non-consequentialism or deontological ethics
Non-consequentialism is concerned with the actions themselves and not with the consequences. It's the theory that people are using when they refer to "the principle of the thing".It teaches that some acts are right or wrong in themselves, whatever the consequences, and people should act accordingly.
Virtue ethics
Virtue ethics looks at virtue or moral character, rather than at ethical duties and rules, or the consequences of actions - indeed some philosophers of this school deny that there can be such things as universal ethical rules.Virtue ethics is particularly concerned with the way individuals live their lives, and less concerned in assessing particular actions.
It develops the idea of good actions by looking at the way virtuous people express their inner goodness in the things that they do.
To put it very simply, virtue ethics teaches that an action is right if and only if it is an action that a virtuous person would do in the same circumstances, and that a virtuous person is someone who has a particularly good character.
Situation ethics
Situation ethics rejects prescriptive rules and argues that individual ethical decisions should be made according to the unique situation.Rather than following rules the decision maker should follow a desire to seek the best for the people involved. There are no moral rules or rights - each case is unique and deserves a unique solution.
Ethics and ideology
Some philosophers teach that ethics is the codification of political ideology, and that the function of ethics is to state, enforce and preserve particular political beliefs.They usually go on to say that ethics is used by the dominant political elite as a tool to control everyone else.
More cynical writers suggest that power elites enforce an ethical code on other people that helps them control those people, but do not apply this code to their own behaviour.
Are there universal moral rules?
One of the big questions in moral philosophy is whether or not there are unchanging moral rules that apply in all cultures and at all times.Moral absolutism
Some people think there are such universal rules that apply to everyone. This sort of thinking is called moral absolutism.Moral absolutism argues that there are some moral rules that are always true, that these rules can be discovered and that these rules apply to everyone.
Immoral acts - acts that break these moral rules - are wrong in themselves, regardless of the circumstances or the consequences of those acts.
Absolutism takes a universal view of humanity - there is one set of rules for everyone - which enables the drafting of universal rules - such as the Declaration of Human Rights.
Religious views of ethics tend to be absolutist.
Why people disagree with moral absolutism:
- Many of us feel that the consequences of an act or the circumstances surrounding it are relevant to whether that act is good or bad
- Absolutism doesn't fit with respect for diversity and tradition
Moral relativism
Moral relativists say that if you look at different cultures or different periods in history you'll find that they have different moral rules.Therefore it makes sense to say that "good" refers to the things that a particular group of people approve of.
Moral relativists think that that's just fine, and dispute the idea that there are some objective and discoverable 'super-rules' that all cultures ought to obey. They believe that relativism respects the diversity of human societies and responds to the different circumstances surrounding human acts.
Why people disagree with moral relativism:
- Many of us feel that moral rules have more to them than the general agreement of a group of people - that morality is more than a super-charged form of etiquette
- Many of us think we can be good without conforming to all the rules of society
- Moral relativism has a problem with arguing against the majority view: if most people in a society agree with particular rules, that's the end of the matter. Many of the improvements in the world have come about because people opposed the prevailing ethical view - moral relativists are forced to regard such people as behaving "badly"
- Any choice of social grouping as the foundation of ethics is bound to be arbitrary
- Moral relativism doesn't provide any way to deal with moral differences between societies
Moral somewhere-in-between-ism
Most non-philosophers think that both of the above theories have some good points and think that- there are a few absolute ethical rules
- but a lot of ethical rules depend on the culture
Religion and Ethics
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/rs/prejudice/christianityrev1.shtml
Christian teaching about other people is based on love and this is stated by Jesus:
But there are many examples too of Christians challenging injustice when they see the laws of God being broken.
John Sentamu, the Archbishop of York, is from Uganda where he was a lawyer and judge until 1975 when he was forced to flee to Britain when President Idi Amin started a reign of terror against his own people. Archbishop Sentamu has done a lot to raise awareness of racism in British society and in the Anglican church.
The teaching of St Paul is often quoted to support the way some churches today treat women. From the extracts below, it would seem that he believed that the role of women was different to that of men, and secondary to it.
St Paul said:
Jesus, however, always showed by his actions that he respected and valued women. He included them among his closest companions, and sometimes went against the conventions of his time which kept men and women apart. Jesus made it clear in the Parable of the Good Samaritan how his followers should treat people – he made no distinction between men and women.
Some Christian denominations have recently begun to allow women to be priests or ministers (eg, Church of England and the Methodist church). Some remain opposed to this (eg, the Roman Catholic Church). Some Christians believe that women are second to men, that men should lead and women should follow (see 1 Timothy 2:8–15).
So although Christianity teaches that everyone should be equal and should be treated the same, this doesn't always happen.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/rs/prejudice/christianityrev4.shtml
But there are many examples too of Muslims challenging injustice when they see the laws of God being broken.
One such person is Farid Esack, a Muslim university teacher who decided to challenge racism and inequality in South Africa at a time when Apartheid was the political system. Today he continues to work with people of all religions to find ways to resolve conflict, misunderstanding and injustice.
However, although men and women are equal, they are not the same. They have different purposes. It is part of Allah’s design and purpose for men and women to have different physical characteristics; likewise it is the duty of a man to provide for the financial needs of his family, and for a woman to look after the home and family.
Some of these differences and responsibilities are mentioned in the following words from the Qur’an:
Although the rights of women are different to those of men, they do have the right to choose whom they marry, to divorce, to study, to own property, to conduct business and to take part in politics.
The Prophet Muhammad stressed the importance of women and the respect that should be shown to them when he said: Paradise lies at the feet of your mother. (Sunan An-Nasa’i).
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/rs/prejudice/islamrev4.shtml
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/rs/prejudice/christianityrev1.shtml
Prejudice is the attitude of someone whose opinion is not based on fact.
Prejudice can be triggered by differences of religion, race, colour,
sex, language, disability or age. Prejudice is not illegal, as an
attitude can’t be illegal, but discrimination is illegal.
Discrimination and human rights
All forms of discrimination go against the first two Articles of the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights: Article 1 All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.Article 2 Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
Christian attitudes towards prejudice and discrimination
Christianity teaches that everyone is equal in the eyes of God. Therefore there is no reason to treat people differently.Christian teaching about other people is based on love and this is stated by Jesus:
I give you a new commandment, that you love one another. Just as I have loved you, you also should love one another.
John 13:34
You shall love your neighbour as yourself.There are also two important teachings in the writings of Paul about this:
Matthew 22:39
From one man he made every nation of men, that they should inhabit the whole earth; and he determined the times set for them and the exact places where they should live.
Acts 17:26
There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.No one can follow these teachings perfectly, and there will be occasions when Christians, like those of other faiths, are guilty of prejudice and discrimination.
Galatians 3:28
But there are many examples too of Christians challenging injustice when they see the laws of God being broken.
John Sentamu, the Archbishop of York, is from Uganda where he was a lawyer and judge until 1975 when he was forced to flee to Britain when President Idi Amin started a reign of terror against his own people. Archbishop Sentamu has done a lot to raise awareness of racism in British society and in the Anglican church.
Inequality in the Christian Church
Many people think that the Christian Church is sexist. It does not treat men and women equally.The teaching of St Paul is often quoted to support the way some churches today treat women. From the extracts below, it would seem that he believed that the role of women was different to that of men, and secondary to it.
St Paul said:
Women should remain silent in the churches. They are not allowed to speak, but must be in submission, as the Law says. If they want to enquire about something, they should ask their own husbands at home; for it is disgraceful for a woman to speak in the church.
1 Corinthians 14:34-35
Now I want you to realise that the head of every man is Christ, and the head of the woman is man, and the head of Christ is God. Every man who prays or prophesies with his head covered dishonours his head. And every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonours her head - it is just as though her head were shaved. If a woman does not cover her head, she should have her hair cut off; and if it is a disgrace for a woman to have her hair cut or shaved off, she should cover her head. A man ought not to cover his head, since he is the image and glory of God; but the woman is the glory of man.
1 Corinthians 11:3-7
Jesus, however, always showed by his actions that he respected and valued women. He included them among his closest companions, and sometimes went against the conventions of his time which kept men and women apart. Jesus made it clear in the Parable of the Good Samaritan how his followers should treat people – he made no distinction between men and women.
Some Christian denominations have recently begun to allow women to be priests or ministers (eg, Church of England and the Methodist church). Some remain opposed to this (eg, the Roman Catholic Church). Some Christians believe that women are second to men, that men should lead and women should follow (see 1 Timothy 2:8–15).
So although Christianity teaches that everyone should be equal and should be treated the same, this doesn't always happen.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/rs/prejudice/christianityrev4.shtml
Muslim attitudes towards prejudice and discrimination
The Qur’an (the Divine Book revealed to the Prophet Muhammad) teaches that everyone was created by Allah (God) and that everyone is equal:Of His Signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the diversity of your tongues and colours.
Surah 30:22
O mankind, We have created you from male and female; and We have divided you into tribes and sub-tribes for greater facility of intercourse. Verily, the most honoured among you in the sight of Allah is he who is the most righteous among you. Surely, Allah is All-Knowing, All-Aware.’Therefore there is no reason to treat people of different races differently. The Prophet Muhammad showed how important this teaching was in his last sermon, when he said:
Surah 49:14
All mankind is descended from Adam and Eve, an Arab is not better than a non-Arab and a non-Arab is not better than an Arab; a white person is not better than a black person, nor is a black person better than a white person except by piety and good actions. Learn that every Muslim is the brother of every other Muslim and that Muslims form one brotherhood.No one can follow these teachings perfectly, and there will be occasions when Muslims, like those of other faiths, are guilty of prejudice and discrimination.
But there are many examples too of Muslims challenging injustice when they see the laws of God being broken.
One such person is Farid Esack, a Muslim university teacher who decided to challenge racism and inequality in South Africa at a time when Apartheid was the political system. Today he continues to work with people of all religions to find ways to resolve conflict, misunderstanding and injustice.
Muhammad said: "Believers are in relation to one another as parts of one structure. One part strengthens the other."
Bukhari Hadith 8.88
The most excellent jihad is the uttering of truth in the presence of an unjust ruler.
Tirmidhi Hadith 17
Attitudes towards women
Islam also teaches that men and women are equal in the sight of Allah. They are individually accountable for their actions, and will be judged equally by Allah.However, although men and women are equal, they are not the same. They have different purposes. It is part of Allah’s design and purpose for men and women to have different physical characteristics; likewise it is the duty of a man to provide for the financial needs of his family, and for a woman to look after the home and family.
Some of these differences and responsibilities are mentioned in the following words from the Qur’an:
O Prophet, direct thy wives and daughters and the women of the believers that they should pull down their outer cloaks from their heads over their faces. This will make it possible for them to be distinguished so that they will not be molested.
Surah 33:59
Wives have rights corresponding to those which the husbands have, in equitable reciprocity, though, in certain situations men would have the final word and would thus enjoy a preference.
Surah 2:229
Men are appointed guardians over women, because of that in respect of which Allah has made some of them excel others, and because men spend of their wealth.
Surah 4:35
Although the rights of women are different to those of men, they do have the right to choose whom they marry, to divorce, to study, to own property, to conduct business and to take part in politics.
The Prophet Muhammad stressed the importance of women and the respect that should be shown to them when he said: Paradise lies at the feet of your mother. (Sunan An-Nasa’i).
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/rs/prejudice/islamrev4.shtml
Jewish attitudes towards prejudice and discrimination
Judaism teaches that everyone is equal in the eyes of God and that everyone should be treated well. The Jews have experienced times in their history of being the 'stranger' or 'outsider' without a homeland. Jewish scripture reflects this experience:When an alien lives with you in your land, do not ill-treat him. The alien living with you must be treated as one of your native-born. Love him as yourself, for you were aliens in Egypt. I am the Lord your G-d.They also believe that everyone is descended from Adam and Eve and so should be given equal respect:
Leviticus 19:33-34
Adam named his wife Eve, because she would become the mother of all the living.Judaism teaches that everyone should follow their own religion to please G-d. The only rules that apply to all people are those of the Noachide Code, given to Noah by G-d after the flood:
Genesis 3:20
- Worship only G-d
- Do not blaspheme
- Do not murder
- Do not steal
- Do not commit adultery
- Do not be cruel to animals
- Establish a system of law and order so that everyone can live together in harmony
- Although Jewish people have been the subjects of discrimination for many years - particularly in the 20th century Holocaust or Shoah - Judaism teaches peace:
The world endures on three things - justice, truth and peace
Ethics of the Fathers 1:18Turn from evil and do good; seek peace and pursue it.
No one can follow these teachings perfectly, and there will be occasions when Jewish people, like those of other faiths, are guilty of prejudice and discrimination.
Psalm 34:14
But there are many examples too of Jewish people challenging injustice when they see the laws of G-d being broken.
The Jewish Council for Racial Equality (J-Core) works with the Jewish and wider communities to promote a positive multi-ethnic UK free from all forms of racism. They have a passionate concern for social justice and work closely with a wide variety of people and organisations eg - other minority ethnic communities
- refugee organisations
- anti-racist organisations
- interfaith groups
- schools and colleges
- community and youth groups
- agencies such as the Refugee Council
- the Equalities and Human Rights Commission
- the Runnymede Trust
Atheism
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/atheism/
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